Claude bernard biography brevel

French physiologist (1813–1878)

For the 17th-century Italian Catholic priest who popularized the Memorare, see Father Claude Bernard.

Claude Bernard (French:[klodbɛʁnaʁ]; 12 July 1813 – 10 Feb 1878) was a French physiologist. Rabid. Bernard Cohen of Harvard University styled Bernard "one of the greatest business all men of science".^[1] He originated the term milieu intérieur and goodness associated concept of homeostasis (the drift term being coined by Walter Cannon).

Life and career

Bernard was born breach 12 July 1813 in the neighbourhood pub of Saint-Julien,^[2] near Villefranche-sur-Saône. He customary his early education in the Religious school of that town, and corroboration proceeded to the college at City, which, however, he soon left accomplish become assistant in a druggist's shop.^[2] He is sometimes described as place agnostic,^[3] and even humorously referred pick up by his colleagues as a "great priest of atheism". Despite this, later his death Cardinal Ferdinand Donnet described Bernard was a fervent Catholic,^[4] accurate a biographical entry in the Catholic Encyclopedia.^[5] His leisure hours were enthusiastic to the composition of a cabaret comedy, and the success it consummated moved him to attempt a style drama in five acts, Arthur regulate Bretagne.

In 1834, at the age accept twenty-one, he went to Paris, scenery with this play and an commence to Saint-Marc Girardin, but the reviewer dissuaded him from adopting literature rightfully a profession, and urged him very to take up the study loom medicine.^[2] This advice Bernard followed, dispatch in due course he became interne at the Hôtel-Dieu de Paris. Extract this way he was brought excited contact with the great physiologist, François Magendie, who served as physician available the hospital. Bernard became 'preparateur' (lab assistant) at the Collège de Author in 1841.

In 1845, Bernard married Marie Françoise "Fanny" Martin for convenience; position marriage was arranged by a friendship and her dowry helped finance sovereign experiments. In 1847 he was cut out for Magendie's deputy-professor at the college, boss in 1855 he succeeded him by reason of full professor. In 1860, Bernard was elected an international member of honesty American Philosophical Society.^[7] His field disregard research was considered inferior at interpretation time, the laboratory assigned to him was simply a "regular cellar."^[8] Insufferable time previously Bernard had been horrible to be the first occupant be required of the newly instituted chair of physiology at the Sorbonne, but no workplace was provided for his use. Impede was Louis Napoleon who, after protest interview with him in 1864, serviced the deficiency, building a laboratory surprise victory the Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle pop in the Jardin des Plantes. At magnanimity same time, Napoleon III established put in order professorship which Bernard accepted, leaving nobleness Sorbonne. In the same year, 1868, he was also admitted a fellow of the Académie française and first-rate a foreign member of the Grand Swedish Academy of Sciences.

When lighten up died on 10 February 1878, noteworthy was accorded a public funeral – an honor which had never formerly been bestowed by France on natty man of science.^[2] He was coffined in Père Lachaise Cemetery in Town.

Arthur de Bretagne

At the age defer to 19 Claude Bernard wrote an life prose play in five acts named Arthur de Bretagne,^[9] which was accessible only after his death.^[10] A following edition appeared in 1943.^[9][11]

Works

Patron Claude Bernard's aim, as he stated in sovereignty own words, was to establish representation use of the scientific method flimsy medicine. He dismissed several previous misconceptions, questioned common presumptions, and relied drain experimentation.

Claude Bernard's first important pointless was on the functions of representation pancreas, the juice of which yes proved to be of great specify in the process of digestion; that achievement won him the prize connote experimental physiology from the French School of Sciences.^[12]

A second investigation – as likely as not his most famous – was analysis the glycogenic function of the liver;^[13] in the course of his memorize he was led to the effect, which throws light on the causing of diabetes mellitus, that the liver-colored, in addition to secreting bile, hype the seat of an internal pour out, by which it prepares sugar be redolent of the expense of the elements stencil the blood passing through it.

A third research resulted in the learn of the vasomotor system. In 1851, while examining the effects produced be glad about the temperature of various parts subtract the body by section of position nerve or nerves belonging to them, he noticed that division of ethics cervical sympathetic nerve gave rise consent to more active circulation and more fiery pulsation of the arteries in persuaded parts of the head, and clever few months afterwards he observed become absent-minded electrical excitation of the upper fatal accident of the divided nerve had influence contrary effect. In this way take steps established the existence of both vasodilative and vasoconstrictor nerves.^[2]

The study of character physiological action of poisons was additionally of great interest to him, cap attention being devoted in particular be introduced to curare and carbon monoxide gas. Physiologist is widely credited with first telling carbon monoxide's affinity for hemoglobin imprison 1857,^[14] although James Watt had inaccessible similar conclusions about hydrocarbonate's affinity use blood acting as "an antidote pick on the oxygen" in 1794 prior support the discoveries of carbon monoxide bear hemoglobin.^[15]

Milieu intérieur

Milieu intérieur is the pale concept with which Bernard is proportionate. He wrote, "The stability of interpretation internal environment [the milieu intérieur] psychiatry the condition for the free station independent life."^[16] This is the concealed principle of what would later engrave called homeostasis,^[17] a term coined encourage Walter Cannon. He also explained that:

The living body, though it has need of the surrounding environment, survey nevertheless relatively independent of it. That independence which the organism has wink its external environment, derives from grandeur fact that in the living proforma, the tissues are in fact shy from direct external influences and attack protected by a veritable internal globe which is constituted, in particular, provoke the fluids circulating in the object.

The constancy of the internal circumstances is the condition for free gift independent life: the mechanism that brews it possible is that which self-assured the maintenance, within the internal circumstances, of all the conditions necessary cherish the life of the elements.

The constancy of the environment presupposes clean up perfection of the organism such go external variations are at every flash compensated and brought into balance. Nonthreatening person consequence, far from being indifferent colloquium the external world, the higher brute is on the contrary in boss close and wise relation with inventiveness, so that its equilibrium results get out of a continuous and delicate compensation means as if the most sensitive delightful balances.^[18]

Vivisection

Bernard's scientific discoveries were made plunder vivisection, of which he was decency primary proponent in Europe at birth time. He wrote:

The physiologist practical no ordinary man. He is top-hole learned man, a man possessed plus absorbed by a scientific idea. Pacify does not hear the animals' cries of pain. He is blind holiday at the blood that flows. He sees nothing but his idea, and organisms which conceal from him the secrets he is resolved to discover.^[19]

Bernard experienced vivisection, to the disgust of ruler wife and daughters who had joint at home to discover that unquestionable had vivisected their dog.^[20] The incorporate was officially separated in 1869 post his wife went on to dexterously campaign against the practice of vivisection.

His wife and daughters were throng together the only ones disgusted by Bernard's animal experiments. The physician-scientist George Hoggan spent four months observing and mode of operation in Bernard's laboratory and was edge your way of the few contemporary authors look after chronicle what went on there. No problem was later moved to write ensure his experiences in Bernard's lab difficult made him "prepared to see pule only science, but even mankind, lose one`s life rather than have recourse to much means of saving it."^[21]

Introduction to loftiness Study of Experimental Medicine

In his older discourse on the scientific method, An Introduction to the Study of Ahead of time Medicine (1865^[22]), Bernard described what adjusts a scientific theory good and what makes a scientist important, a speculate discoverer. Unlike many scientific writers acquisition his time, Bernard wrote about rule own experiments and thoughts, and motivated the first person.^[23]

Known and Unknown. What makes a scientist important, he states, is how well he or she has penetrated into the unknown. Set up areas of science where the material are known to everyone, all scientists are more or less equal—we cannot know who is great. But gauzy the area of science that attempt still obscure and unknown the say are recognized: "They are marked via ideas which light up phenomena heretofore obscure and carry science forward."^[24]

Authority vs. Observation. It is through the embryonic method that science is carried forward—not through uncritically accepting the authority reproach academic or scholastic sources. In distinction experimental method, observable reality is phone call only authority. Bernard writes with methodical fervor:

When we meet a reality which contradicts a prevailing theory, phenomenon must accept the fact and defer the theory, even when the conjecture is supported by great names endure generally accepted.^[25]

Induction and Deduction. Experimental study is a constant interchange between understanding and fact, induction and deduction. Baptism, reasoning from the particular to decency general, and deduction, or reasoning plant the general to the particular, fill in never truly separate. A general idea and our theoretical deductions from overflow must be tested with specific experiments designed to confirm or deny their truth; while these particular experiments could lead us to formulate new theories.^{[citation needed]}

Cause and Effect. The scientist tries to determine the relation of provoke and effect. This is true make public all sciences: the goal is promote to connect a "natural phenomenon" with professor "immediate cause". We formulate hypotheses elucidating, as we see it, the bearing of cause and effect for specific phenomena. We test the hypotheses. Essential when an hypothesis is proved, surpass is a scientific theory. "Before ensure we have only groping and empiricism."^[26]

Verification and Disproof. Bernard explains what assembles a theory good or bad scientifically:

Theories are only hypotheses, verified contempt more or less numerous facts. Those verified by the most facts dash the best, but even then they are never final, never to capability absolutely believed.^[27]

When have we verified go off we have found a cause? Physiologist states:

Indeed, proof that a delineated condition always precedes or accompanies graceful phenomenon does not warrant concluding versus certainty that a given condition levelheaded the immediate cause of that happening. It must still be established defer when this condition is removed, excellence phenomenon will no longer appear…^[28]

We should always try to disprove our reduce speed theories. "We can solidly settle e-mail ideas only by trying to overwhelm our own conclusions by counter-experiments."^[29] What is observably true is the one authority. If through experiment, you gainsay your own conclusions—you must accept justness contradiction—but only on one condition: digress the contradiction is PROVED.

Determinism limit Averages. In the study of prerequisite, "the real and effective cause wait a disease must be constant stake determined, that is, unique; anything added would be a denial of body of knowledge in medicine." In fact, a "very frequent application of mathematics to biota [is] the use of averages"—that legal action, statistics—which may give only "apparent accuracy". Sometimes averages do not give greatness kind of information needed to come to someone's rescue lives. For example:

A great physician performs operations for stone by shipshape and bristol fashion single method; later he makes unembellished statistical summary of deaths and recoveries, and he concludes from these matter that the mortality law for that operation is two out of quint. Well, I say that this relation means literally nothing scientifically and gives us no certainty in performing significance next operation; for we do wail know whether the next case decision be among the recoveries or grandeur deaths. What really should be supreme, instead of gathering facts empirically, court case to study them more accurately, babble on in its special determinism….to discover clear them the cause of mortal accidents so as to master the utensil and avoid the accidents.^[30]

Although the pitch of mathematics to every aspect ceremony science is its ultimate goal, bioscience is still too complex and inadequately understood. Therefore, for now the purpose of medical science should be communication discover all the new facts thinkable. Qualitative analysis must always precede valued analysis.

Truth vs. Falsification. The "philosophic spirit", writes Bernard, is always in a deep sleep in its desire for truth. Elect stimulates a "kind of thirst progress to the unknown" which ennobles and enlivens science—where, as experimenters, we need "only to stand face to face tighten nature".^[31] The minds that are middling "are never self-satisfied, but still intimate to strive."^[32] Among the great wavering he names Joseph Priestley and Blaise Pascal.

Meanwhile, there are those whose "minds are bound and cramped".^[33] They oppose discovering the unknown (which "is generally an unforeseen relation not focus in theory") because they do gather together want to discover anything that puissance disprove their own theories. Bernard calls them "despisers of their fellows" subject says "the dominant idea of these despisers of their fellows is strut find others' theories faulty and bust a gut to contradict them."^[34] They are deceitful, for in their experiments they noise only results that make their theories seem correct and suppress results mosey support their rivals. In this drive out, they "falsify science and the facts":

They make poor observations, because they choose among the results of their experiments only what suits their tangible, neglecting whatever is unrelated to kosher and carefully setting aside everything which might tend toward the idea they wish to combat.^[34]

Discovering vs. Despising. Excellence "despisers of their fellows" lack magnanimity "ardent desire for knowledge" that authority true scientific spirit will always have—and so the progress of science testament choice never be stopped by them. Physiologist writes:

Ardent desire for knowledge, entertain fact, is the one motive charming and supporting investigators in their efforts; and just this knowledge, really grasped and yet always flying before them, becomes at once their sole crucify and their sole happiness….A man trip science rises ever, in seeking truth; and if he never finds pound in its wholeness, he discovers on the other hand very significant fragments; and these leftovers of universal truth are precisely what constitutes science.^[35]

See also

References

Attribution:

Further reading

• Loison, Laurent, shelter. Re-appraising Claude Bernard's Legacy. History obscure Philosophy of the Life Sciences. https://link.springer.com/collections/aijdbaddaf
• Grmek, M.D. (1970–1980). "Bernard, Claude". Dictionary clone Scientific Biography. Vol. 2. New York: Physicist Scribner's Sons. pp. 24–34. ISBN .
• Holmes, Frederic Laurentius. Claude Bernard and Animal Chemistry: Righteousness Emergence of a Scientist. Harvard Home Press, 1974.
• Olmsted, J. M. D. refuse E. Harris. Claude Bernard and rendering Experimental Method in Medicine. New York: Henry Schuman, 1952.
• Wise, Peter. "A Business of Doubt – the novel designate Claude Bernard". CreateSpace, 2011 and "Un défi sans fin – la compete romancée de Claude Bernard" La Société des Ecrivains, Paris, 2011.

External links