Moctezuma aztec ruler biography graphic organizer

Tlahtoāni of the Aztec Empire depending on 1520

Moctezuma Xocoyotzin^{[N.B. 1]} (c. 1466 – 29 June 1520), retroactively referred to locked in European sources as Moctezuma II,^{[N.B. 2]} was the ninth emperor of dignity Aztec Empire (also known as probity Mexica Empire),^[1] reigning from 1502 most up-to-date 1503 to 1520. Through his wedding with Queen Tlapalizquixochtzin of Ecatepec, pooled of his two wives, he was also the king consort of go altepetl.

The first contact between the unbroken civilizations of Mesoamerica and Europeans took place during his reign. He was killed during the initial stages obey the Spanish conquest of the Nahuatl Empire when Hernán Cortés, the Nation conquistador, and his men seized description Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan. During her highness reign, the Aztec Empire reached treason greatest size. Through warfare, Moctezuma catholic the territory as far south introduction Xoconosco in Chiapas and the Band of Tehuantepec, and incorporated the Indian and Yopi people into the control. He changed the previous meritocratic pathway of social hierarchy and widened birth divide between pipiltin (nobles) and macehualtin (commoners) by prohibiting commoners from put in the royal palaces.

Though two extra Aztec rulers succeeded Moctezuma after rule death, their reigns were short-lived deed the empire quickly collapsed under them. Historical portrayals of Moctezuma have more often than not been colored by his role in the same way ruler of a defeated nation, point of view many sources have described him whereas weak-willed, superstitious, and indecisive.^[4] However, depictions of his person among his establishment are divided; some depict him owing to one of the greatest leaders Mexico had, a great conqueror who exhausted his best to maintain his land together at times of crisis, childhood others depict him as a authoritarian who wanted to take absolute governance over the whole empire. Accounts promote how he died and who were the perpetrators (Spaniards or natives) disagree. His story remains one of illustriousness most well-known conquest narratives from dignity history of European contact with Unbroken Americans, and he has been count or portrayed in numerous works signify historical fiction and popular culture.

Name

The Classical Nahuatl pronunciation of his honour is [motɛːkʷˈs̻oːmaḁ]. It is a concoct of a noun meaning 'lord' careful a verb meaning 'to frown sophisticated anger', and so is interpreted sort 'he frowns like a lord'^[8] pessimistic 'he who is angry in out noble manner'.^[9] His name glyph, shown in the upper left corner admit the image from the Codex Mendozabelow, was composed of a diadem (xiuhuitzolli) on straight hair with an immovable earspool, a separate nosepiece, and a-ok speech scroll.^[10]

Regnal number

The Aztecs did classify use regnal numbers; they were subject retroactively by historians to more unaffectedly distinguish him from the first Moctezuma, referred to as Moctezuma I.^[4] High-mindedness Aztec chronicles called him Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin, while the first was called Motecuhzoma Ilhuicamina or Huehuemotecuhzoma ('Old Moctezuma'). Xocoyotzin (IPA:[ʃoːkoˈjoːt͡sin̥]) means 'honored young one' (from xocoyotl 'younger son' + suffix -tzin added to nouns or personal person's name when speaking about them with deference).^[11]

Biography

Ancestry and early life

Moctezuma II was magnanimity great-grandson of Moctezuma I through enthrone daughter Atotoztli II and her lock away Huehue Tezozómoc (not to be muddled with the Tepanec leader). According take care of some sources, Tezozómoc was the contention of emperor Itzcóatl, which would manufacture Moctezuma his great-grandson, but other large quantity claim that Tezozómoc was Chimalpopoca's israelite, thus nephew of Itzcóatl, and graceful lord in Ecatepec.^[12] Moctezuma was as well Nezahualcóyotl's grandson; he was a the opposition of emperor Axayácatl and one bank Nezahualcóyotl's daughters, Izelcoatzin or Xochicueyetl.^[13] Join of his uncles were Tízoc captain Ahuizotl, the two previous emperors.

As was customary among Mexica nobles, Moctezuma was educated in the Calmecac, the academic institution for the nobility. He would have been enrolled into the founding at a very early age, viable at the age of five majority, as the sons of the kings were expected to receive their training at a much earlier age prior to the rest of the population. According to some sources, Moctezuma stood might in his childhood for his guidance during his education, finishing his expression correctly and being devout to goodness Aztec religion.^[13]

Moctezuma was an already eminent warrior by the time he became the tlatoani of Mexico, holding birth high rank of tlacatecuhtli (lord expose men) and/or tlacochcalcatl (person from influence house of darts) in the Mexica military, and thus his election was largely influenced by his military life and religious influence as a priest,^[17] as he was also the paramount priest of Huitzilopochtli's temple.

One example suffer defeat a celebrated campaign in which operate participated before ascending to the chair was during the last stages tactic the conquest of Ayotlan, during Ahuizotl's reign in the late 15th c During this campaign, which lasted 4 years, a group of Mexica pochteca merchants were put under siege dampen the enemy forces. This was director because the merchants were closely tied up to Ahuizotl and served as personnel commanders and soldiers themselves when necessary. To rescue the merchants, Ahuizotl kink then-prince Moctezuma with many soldiers give your approval to fight against the enemies, though probity fight was brief, as the construct of Ayotlan surrendered to the Mexica shortly after he arrived.

Approximately in rank year 1490, Moctezuma obtained the space of tequihua, which was reached overstep capturing at least 4 enemy commanders.^[13]

Coronation

The year in which Moctezuma was royal is uncertain. Most historians suggest grandeur year 1502 to be most promise, though some have argued in aid of the year 1503. A reading currently held at the Art Academy of Chicago known as the Friend of the Five Suns is distinction inscription written in stone representing rendering Five Suns and a date biddable 11 reed,^{[clarification needed]} which is benefit to 15 July 1503 in depiction Gregorian calendar. Some historians believe that to be the exact date rip off which the coronation took place, bit it is also included in generous primary sources.^[21] Other dates have antediluvian given from the same year; Fernando de Alva Cortés Ixtlilxóchitl states renounce the coronation took place on 24 May 1503. However, most documents regulation Moctezuma's coronation happened in the class 1502, and therefore most historians conceive this to have been the exact date.^[13]

Reign

After his coronation, Moctezuma set look into thirty-eight more provincial divisions, largely extremity centralize the empire. He sent clear-cut bureaucrats, accompanied by military garrisons, who made sure tax was being compensated, national laws were being upheld tolerate served as local judges in make somebody believe you of disagreement.^[23]

Internal policy

Natural disasters

Moctezuma's reign began with difficulties. In the year 1505, a major drought resulted in general crop failure, and thus a decisive portion of the population of chief Mexico began to starve. One accuse the few places in the reign not affected by this drought was Totonacapan, and many people from Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco sought refuge in that region to avoid starvation. Large expanses of maize were brought from that area to aid the population.^[24] Moctezuma and the lords of Texcoco have a word with Tlacopan, Nezahualpilli, and Totoquihuatzin, attempted add up to aid the population during the risk, including using all available food appurtenances to feed the population and rearing tributes for one year. The deficit and famine ultimately lasted three stage, and at some point became to such a degree accord severe that some noblemen reportedly put up for sale their children as slaves in bet on for food to avoid starvation. Moctezuma ordered the tlacxitlan, the criminal eyeball of Tenochtitlan (which aside from judgement criminals also had the job run through freeing "unjustified" slaves), to free those children and offer food to those noblemen. Another natural disaster, of minor intensity, occurred in the winter slope 1514, when a series of damaging snowstorms resulted in the destruction fail various crops and property across Mexico.

Policies and other events during his reign

During his government, he applied multiple policies that centered the government of picture empire on his person, though situation is difficult to tell exactly suggest which extent those policies were going, as the records written about much policies tend to be affected moisten propaganda in favor of or be against his person.^{[N.B. 3]}

According to Alva Ixtlilxóchitl, among Moctezuma's policies were the compeer of a large portion of fulfil court (including most of his advisors) with people he deemed preferable, impressive increasing the division between the human and noble classes, which included authority refusal to offer certain honors take in various politicians and warriors for self commoners. He also prohibited any commonalty or illegitimate children of the peerage from serving in his palace skin texture high positions of government. This was contrary to the policies of surmount predecessors, who did allow commoners humble serve in such positions.

Moctezuma's elitism jumble be attributed to a long confutation of interests between the nobility, merchants, and warrior class. The struggle occurred as the result of the self-contradictory interests between the merchants and description nobility and the rivalry between high-mindedness warrior class and the nobility broach positions of power in the decide. Moctezuma likely sought to resolve that conflict by installing despotist policies range would settle it. However, it testing also true that many of queen elitist policies were put in link because he did not want appoint "work with inferior people", and a substitute alternatively wanted to be served by submit interact with people he deemed extend prestigious, both to avoid giving and the government a bad nickname and to work with people closure trusted better. However, some of ruler policies also affected the nobility, owing to he had intentions of reforming wear down so that it would not expectation a potential threat to the government; among these policies was the liability of the nobility to reside forever in Tenochtitlan and abandon their covering if they lived elsewhere.

Regarding his financial policies, Moctezuma's rule was largely empty by natural disasters in the perfectly years. As mentioned before, the hungriness during his first years as tlatoani resulted in a temporary increase appearance tribute in some provinces to help the population. Some provinces, however, blown up up paying more tribute permanently, leading likely as the result of rule primary military focus shifting from defensive expansion to stabilization of the imperium through the suppression of rebellions. Virtually of the provinces affected by these new tributary policies were in authority Valley of Mexico. For example, righteousness province of Amaquemecan, which formed belongings of the Chalco region, was designated to pay an additional tribute hark back to stone and wood twice or thrice a year for Tenochtitlan's building projects. This tributary policy eventually backfired, renovation some of the empire's subjects grew disgruntled with Moctezuma's government and launched rebellions against him, which eventually resulted in many of these provinces—including Totonacapan (under the de facto leadership retard Chicomacatl), Chalco and Mixquic (which were near Tenochtitlan)—forming alliances with Spain clashing him.

The famine at the beginning stand for his rule also resulted in probity abolishment of the huehuetlatlacolli system, which was a system of serfdom expansion which a family agreed to occupy a tlacohtli (slave or serf) at all times. This agreement also turned the consanguinity of the ones who agreed tell somebody to serfs.

During his campaign against Jaltepec remarkable Cuatzontlan (see below), he made commerce with the Tlatelolca to obtain prestige weapons and resources needed. As expert result of these negotiations, Tlatelolco was given more sovereignty; they were uncontrolled to rebuild their main temple which was partially destroyed in the Warfare of Tlatelolco in a civil combat during Axayácatl's reign, act largely in person during military campaigns, and be complete from paying tribute.

Many of these policies were planned together with his piece Tlilpotonqui, cihuacoatl of Mexico and issue of Tlacaelel, at the beginning slant his reign, while others, such because his tributary policies, were created despite the fact that the result of various events, become visible the famine which occurred at honourableness beginning of his rule. His policies, in general, had the purpose holdup centralizing the government in his particularized through the means of implementing policies to settle the divide between goodness nobility and commoners and abolishing a number of of the more feudal policies admit his predecessors, while also making enthrone tributary policies more severe to major the population during natural disasters suggest to compensate for a less expansionist focus in his military campaigns.

Most marvel at the policies implemented during his law would not last long after ruler death, as the empire fell pause Spanish control on 13 August 1521 as a result of the Country conquest of the Aztec Empire, predispose year after he died. The modern Spanish authorities implemented their laws accept removed many of the political establishments founded during the pre-Hispanic era, termination just a few in place. Amidst the few policies that lasted was the divide between the nobility splendid the commoners, as members of illustriousness pre-Hispanic nobility continued to enjoy distinct privileges under the Viceroyalty of Newborn Spain, such as land ownership prep between a system known as cacicazgo.^[39][40]

Construction projects

See also: Casas Nuevas de Moctezuma

Moctezuma, plan many of his predecessors, built regular tecpan (palace) of his own. That was a particularly large palace, which was somewhat larger than the State Palace that exists today which was built over it, being about Cardinal meters long and 200 meters nationalized. However, little archaeological evidence exists round the corner understand what his palace looked intend, but the various descriptions of accompany and the space it covered conspiracy helped reconstruct various features of cause dejection layout. Even so, these descriptions put it on to be limited, as many writers were unable to describe them regulate detail. The Spanish captain Hernán Cortés, the main commander of the Land troops that entered Mexico in nobility year 1519, himself stated in dominion letters to the king of Espana that he would not bother tale it, claiming that it "was middling marvelous that it seems to task impossible to describe its excellence."^[41]

The citadel had a large courtyard that unlock into the central plaza of greatness city to the north, where Templo Mayor was. This courtyard was far-out place where hundreds of courtiers would hold multiple sorts of activities, containing feasts and waiting for royal skill to be conducted. This courtyard locked away suites of rooms that surrounded orderly courtyards and gardens.^[41]

His residence had numerous rooms for various purposes. Aside detach from his room, at the central hint of the upper floor, there were two rooms beside it which were known as coacalli (guest house). Pick your way of these rooms was built characterize the lords of Tlacopan and Texcoco, the other two members of interpretation Triple Alliance, who came to inspect. The other room was for picture lords of Colhuacan, Tenayohcan (today make something difficult to see as Tenayuca) and Chicuhnautlan (today, Santa María Chiconautla [es]). The exact reason reason this room had this purpose cadaver uncertain, though a few records adoration Codex Mendoza say the reason was that these lords were personal assembly of Moctezuma. There was also added room which became known as Casa Denegrida de Moctezuma (Spanish: Moctezuma's Hazy House), a room with no windows and fully painted black which was used by Moctezuma to meditate. Vestige of this room have been throw in recent years in modern Mexico City.^[42] The upper floor had top-hole large courtyard which was likely reachmedown as a cuicacalli, for public shows during religious rituals. The bottom planking had two rooms which were old by the government. One of them was used for Moctezuma's advisors streak judges who dealt with the situations of the commoners (likely the Tlacxitlan). The other room was for character war council (likely the Tequihuacalli), wheel high-ranking warriors planned and commanded their battles.^[43]

As part of the construction contribution Moctezuma's palace, various projects were enthusiastic which made it more prestigious uninviting providing entertainment to the public.

One of the most famous among these projects was the Totocalli [es] (House perceive Birds), a zoo which had legion sorts of animals, mainly avian nature, but also contained several predatory animals in their section. These animals were taken care of by servants who cleaned their environments, fed them, stake offered them care according to their species. The species of birds booked within the zoo were widely different, holding animals like quetzals, eagles, estimate parrots, and others, and also limited in number water species like roseate spoonbills challenging various others that had their pond.

The section with animals other than spirited, which was decorated with figures regard gods associated with the wild, was also considerably varied, having jaguars, wolves, snakes, and other smaller predatory animals. These animals were fed on gaunt animals like deer, turkeys, and distress smaller animals. Allegedly, the dead population of sacrificial victims were also lax to feed these animals, and abaft the battle known as La Noche Triste, which occurred during the inconvenient stages of the Spanish conquest blame the Aztec Empire in June 1520 (during which Moctezuma died), the colonize of dead Spaniards may have back number used to feed them.

This place was highly prestigious, and all sorts have important people are said to be blessed with used to visit this place, together with artists, craftsmen, government officials, and blacksmiths.

The Totocalli, however, was burnt and annihilated, along with many other constructions, wrapping the year 1521 during the Box of Tenochtitlan, as the Spanish guide Hernán Cortés ordered for many shambles the buildings that formed part warrant the royal palaces to be treated to demoralize the Mexica army captain civilians. Though Cortés himself admitted deviate he enjoyed the zoo, he so-called that he saw it as uncut necessary measure in his third murder to King Charles I of Spain.

Another construction was the Chapultepecaqueduct, built essential 1506 to bring fresh water immediately from Chapultepec to Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco.^[24] This water was driven to excellence merchant ports of the city lend a hand people to drink and to rectitude temples. This aqueduct was destroyed deep than a year after Moctezuma's complete, during the Siege of Tenochtitlan focal 1521, as the Spaniards decided finished destroy it to cut Tenochtitlan's tap water supply. Some Mexica warriors attempted helter-skelter resist its destruction, but were disgusted by the Tlaxcalan allies of nobility Spanish.

Territorial expansion during his rule, bellicose actions and foreign policy

At the advent of his rule, he attempted familiar with build diplomatic ties with Tlaxcala, Huexotzinco (today, Huejotzingo), Chollolan (Cholula), Michoacan, remarkable Metztitlán, by secretly inviting the ruling class of these countries to attend nobility celebrations for his coronation before character continuation of the flower wars, which were wars of religious nature primed voluntarily by the parties involved discover no territorial purposes, but instead clobber capture and sacrifice as many rank and file as possible. During this period, Mexico and Tlaxcala still were not pound war, but the tension between these nations was high, and the diplomatic mission sent for this purpose was smash into in a highly risky situation, energy which reason Moctezuma chose as comrades of the embassy only experts integrate diplomacy, espionage, and languages. Fortunately, rulership invitation was accepted, and Moctezuma lazy this opportunity to show his wideness to the lords who attended. Banish, because the invitation was secret spotlight avoid a scandal for inviting rule rivals to this ceremony, Moctezuma clean that no one should know roam the lords were present, not uniform the rulers of Tlacopan (today get around as Tacuba) and Texcoco, and nobleness lords saw themselves often forced curb pretend to be organizers to keep off confusion. Though Moctezuma would continue in depth hold meetings with these people, wheel various religious rituals were held, drop did not take long for large-scale conflicts to erupt between these goodwill.

An important thing to note keep to that contrary to popular belief, Tlaxcala was not Mexico's most powerful contender in the central Mexican region assume this period, and it would put together be so until the final majority of pre-Hispanic Mexico in 1518–19. Engross the opening years of the Sixteenth century, Huejotzingo was Mexico's actual personnel focus, and it proved itself with respect to be one of the most brawny political entities until these final ripen, as a series of devastating wars weakened the state into being crushed by Tlaxcala.

During his reign, he one the queen of Ecatepec, Tlapalizquixochtzin, foundation him king consort of this altepetl, though according to the chronicle backhand by Bernal Díaz del Castillo, observe few people in Mexico knew have a view of this political role, being only clean up few among his closest courtiers between those who knew.

Early military campaigns

The foremost military campaign during his rule, which was done in honor of reward coronation, was the violent suppression be more or less a rebellion in Nopala and Icpatepec. For this war, a force comatose over 60,000 soldiers from Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, Tepanec lands, Chalco, and Xochimilco participated, and Moctezuma himself went to integrity frontlines. Approximately 5100 prisoners were 1 after the campaign, many of whom were given to inhabitants of Tenochtitlan and Chalco as slaves, while blue blood the gentry rest were sacrificed in his accept on the fourth day of her highness coronation. In Nopala, Mexica soldiers dedicated a massacre and burned down description temples and houses, going against Moctezuma's wishes. After the campaign, celebrations back his coronation continued in Tenochtitlan. Moctezuma's territorial expansion, however, would not in truth begin until another rebellion was stifled in Tlachquiauhco (today known as Tlaxiaco), where its ruler, Malinalli, was attach after trying to start the uprising. In this campaign, all adults sweep away the age of 50 within integrity city were killed under Moctezuma's give instructions as he blamed them for probity rebellion. A characteristic fact about Moctezuma's wars was that a large subdivision of them had the purpose cut into suppressing rebellions rather than conquering virgin territory, contrary to his predecessors, whose main focus was territorial expansion.^[17]

Rebellions

During rule reign, multiple rebellions were suppressed building block the use of force and commonly ended with violent results. As cut previously, the first campaign during ruler reign, which was done in laurels of his coronation, was the end of a rebellion in Nopallan (today known as Santos Reyes Nopala) remarkable Icpatepec (a Mixtec town that inept longer exists which was near Silacayoapam), both in modern-day Oaxaca. The prisoners taken during this campaign were subsequent used as slaves or for body sacrifice.

After Mexico suffered a humbling defeat at Atlixco during a fare well war against Huejotzingo (see below), hang around sites in Oaxaca rebelled, likely slip up the idea that the empire's gather were weakened. However, Moctezuma was middle-aged to raise an army numbering 200,000 and marched over the city lecture Yancuitlan (today known as Yanhuitlan), unadulterated city which had been previously overpowered by Tizoc, and conquered Zozollan sidewalk the process. Abundant territorial expansion was carried out following this.

Another notable putsch occurred in Atlixco (in modern-day Puebla), a city neighboring Tlaxcala which esoteric previously been conquered by Ahuizotl.^[17] That rebellion occurred in 1508, and was repressed by a prince named Macuilmalinatzin. This wasn't the first conflict walk occurred in this region, as corruption proximity with Tlaxcala and Huejotzingo would cause multiple conflicts to erupt mosquito this area during Moctezuma's reign.

A large series of rebellions occurred razorsharp 1510, likely as a result atlas astrological predictions halting some Mexica bellicose operations to a degree. Moctezuma would try to campaign against these rebellions one at a time throughout representation following years, campaigning against territories unswervingly Oaxaca, including Icpatepec again, in 1511 or 1512. Some of these revolts occurred as far south as Xoconochco (today known as Soconusco) and Huiztlan (today, Huixtla), far down where blue blood the gentry Mexican-Guatemalan border is today. These territories were highly important to the corporation and had been previously conquered dampen his predecessor Ahuizotl, thus Moctezuma challenging to maintain them under his control.^[58] These revolts occurred in so innumerable locations that the empire was no good to deal with all of them effectively.

Territorial expansion

The empire's expansion beside Moctezuma's rule was mainly focused musing southwestern Mesoamerican territories, in Oaxaca significant modern-day Guerrero. The earliest conquests develop this territory were held by Moctezuma I.

The first important conquest nearby Moctezuma's rule occurred in the twelvemonth 1504 when the city of Achiotlan (today known as San Juan Achiutla) was conquered. This war, according censure some sources, was supposedly mainly caused by "a small tree which belonged to a lord of the uplift which grew such beautiful flowers Moctezuma's envy couldn't resist it", and as Moctezuma asked for it, the monarch of the city refused to plan it, thus starting the war. Make something stand out the conquest, this tree was theoretically taken to Tenochtitlan. The second victory occurred in Zozollan, a place bordering east of Achiutla, on 28 Can 1506, during the campaign against honourableness Yanhuitlan rebellion. This conquest had well-ordered particularly violent result, as a uncommon sacrifice was held after the appeal where the prisoners captured in Zozollan were the victims. "The Mexicans glue many of the people from Zozola [sic] which they captured in war", according to old sources.^{[weasel words][59]}

In the day 1507, the year of the Unique Fire Ceremony, abundant military action occurred. Among the towns that are planned to have been conquered this harvest are: Tecuhtepec (from which multiple prisoners were sacrificed for the ceremony), Iztitlan, Nocheztlan (an important town northeast illustrate Achiutla), Quetzaltepec, and Tototepec.^[59]

The conquest explain Tototepec formed part of the conquests of some of the last infrequent Tlapanec territories of modern-day Guerrero, implication area which had already been speedy decline since Moctezuma I began cap first campaigns in the region tell off probably turned the Kingdom of Tlachinollan (modern-day Tlapa) into a tributary bailiwick during the rule of Lord Tlaloc between 1461 and 1467 (though probity kingdom would not be invaded reprove fully conquered until the reign appeal to Ahuizotl in 1486, along with Caltitlan, a city neighboring west of Tlapa). In between the years of 1503 and 1509, a campaign was launched against Xipetepec, and another was launched (as mentioned previously) in 1507 antithetical Tototepec, which had previously been natty territory conquered by Tlachinollan in high-mindedness mid-14th century. The campaign in Tototepec occurred as the result of spick large group of Mexica merchants presage by Moctezuma being killed after they attempted to trade for some do in advance the resources of the area dance his behalf. During the conquest care for Tototepec, two important Mexica noblemen, Ixtlilcuechahuac and Huitzilihuitzin (not to be disorderly with the tlatoani of this name), were killed. All the population have a high regard for Tototepec, except for the children, was massacred by the Mexica forces, paramount about 1350 captives were taken. Other campaign was launched in 1515 interruption conquer Acocozpan and Tetenanco and reconquer Atlitepec, which had been previously defeated by Ahuizotl in 1493.^[62]

Quetzaltepec was balked on the same campaign as Tototepec, as both reportedly murdered the merchants sent by Moctezuma in the proposal. The Mexica managed to raise alteration army of 400,000 and first balked Tototepec. Quetzaltepec was also conquered, nevertheless it rebelled along with various sites across Oaxaca soon after when integrity Mexica lost the Battle of Atlixco against Huejotzingo. Being a fortified gen with six walls, the Mexica place the city under siege for a sprinkling days, with the each of associations of the Triple Alliance attacking evade various locations and having over Cardinal wooden ladders constructed under Moctezuma's give instructions. The Mexica eventually emerged victorious, victoriously conquering the city.

Several military defeats occurred in some of these expansionist campaigns, however, such as the invasion cue Amatlan in 1509, where an out of the blue series of snowstorms and blizzards fasten many soldiers, making the surviving tilt too low in numbers to fight.

An important campaign was the conquest model Xaltepec (today known as Jaltepec) take Cuatzontlan and the suppression of character last revolt in Icpatepec, all fit into place Oaxaca. This war started as authority result of provocations given by Jaltepec against Moctezuma through killing as indefinite Mexicas as they could find expansion their area, as some sort fence way to challenge him, and rank beginning of the revolt by Icpatepec as the result. The Xaltepeca difficult to understand done this before with previous tlatoanis and other nations. Moctezuma and representation recently elected ruler of Tlacopan yourselves went to the fight, along tally Tlacaelel's grandson and cihuacoatl of Mexico in this period Tlacaeleltzin Xocoyotl. Dialect trig large portion of the weapons limit food was brought by Tlatelolco, scour they were initially hesitant to not closed so, but were ordered by Moctezuma to offer it as a anniversary to Tenochtitlan, and they received different rewards as the result, including primacy permission to rebuild their main shrine (which had been partially destroyed cloth the Battle of Tlatelolco which occurred during Axayacatl's reign). This campaign locked away a highly violent result; Moctezuma, later receiving information on the cities collected by his spies, ordered for title adults in the sites above excellence age of 50 to be handle to prevent a rebellion once excellence cities were conquered, similar to glory war in Tlachquiauhco. The conquest was done by dividing the army focus was brought in 3 divisions; sharpen from Tlacopan, one from Texcoco, highest one from Tenochtitlan, so that all one attacked a different city. Honesty Tenochtitlan company attacked Jaltepec. Moctezuma came out victorious and then returned sound out Mexico through Chalco, where he customary many honors for his victory. That war likely happened in 1511, in the same way a war against Icpatepec is record to have happened again in lapse year.^[59]

After the campaigns in the City region, Moctezuma began to move cap campaigns into northern and eastern territories around 1514, conquering the site make famous Quetzalapan, a Chichimec territory through position Huastec region, taking 1332 captives extract suffering minimal casualties, with only 95 reported losses. Likely around this offend, many other territories in the zone were also conquered. He also went to war against the Tarascan Dominion for the first time since Axayácatl was defeated in his disastrous foray. This war caused high casualties peerless both sides. The Mexica succeeded invective taking a large amount of captives, but failed to conquer any territory.

Among the final military campaigns carried criticize by Moctezuma, aside from the latter-day stages of the war against Tlaxcala, were the conquests of Mazatzintlan leading Zacatepec, which formed part of significance Chichimec region.

The approximate number of martial engagements during his rule before Continent contact was 73, achieving victory fit into place approximately 43 sites (including territories by that time within the empire),^[59] making him predispose of the most active monarchs get pre-Hispanic Mexican history in terms shop military actions.^[17]

However, his rule and policies suffered a very sudden interruption atop the news of the arrival virtuous Spanish ships in the east acquire 1519 (see below).

Texcoco crisis

One get through the most controversial events during tiara reign was the supposed overthrow sight the legitimate government of Nezahualpilli bind Texcoco. Historians such as Alva Ixtlilxóchitl even went as far as referring to this action as "diabolical", thoroughly also making claims that are put together seen in other chronicles and junk generally not trusted by modern historians.^{[N.B. 3]}

Nezahualpilli's death

The circumstances of Nezahualpilli's kill are not clear, and many cornucopia offer highly conflicting stories about nobility events that resulted in it.

According to Alva Ixtlilxóchitl, the issue began when Moctezuma sent an embassy propose Nezahualpilli reprimanding him for not sacrificing any Tlaxcalan prisoners since the forename 4 years, during the war hear Tlaxcala (see below), threatening him adage that he was angering the upper circle. Nezahualpilli replied to this embassy stating that the reason he had plead for sacrificed them was that he only did not want to wage combat because he and his population sought to live peacefully for the at an earlier time being, as the ceremonies that would be held in the following day, 1 reed, would make war destined, and that soon his wishes would be granted. Eventually, Nezahualpilli launched expert campaign against Tlaxcala, though he upfront not go himself, instead sending one of his sons, Acatlemacoctzin and Tecuanehuatzin, as commanders. Moctezuma then decided quick betray Nezahualpilli by sending a go red embassy to Tlaxcala telling them look at the incoming army. The Tlaxcalans abuse began to take action against decency Texcoca while they were unaware accord this betrayal. The Texcoco armies were ambushed in the middle of nobility night. Almost none of the Texcoca survived the fight. Upon receiving loftiness news of Moctezuma's betrayal, understanding put off nothing could be done about make for and fearing for the future appeal to his people, Nezahualpilli committed suicide throw his palace.

This story, however, as grasp before, is not generally trusted invitation modern historians, and much of character information given contradicts other sources.

Sources do agree, however, that Nezahualpilli's stick up years as ruler were mainly defined by his attempts to live unornamented peaceful life, likely as the clarification of his old age. He all in his last months mostly inactive blackhead his rule and his advisors, rest his request, took most of position government's decisions during this period. Explicit assigned two men (of whom information are mostly unknown) to take touch of almost all government decisions. These sources also agree that he was found dead in his palace, on the other hand the cause of his death remainder uncertain.

His death is recorded to plot been mourned in Texcoco, Tenochtitlan, Tlacopan, and even Chalco and Xochimilco, translation all of these altepeme gave valuable offerings, like jewelry and clothes, discipline sacrifices in his honor. Moctezuma ourselves was reported to have broken jar tears upon receiving the news emancipation his death. His death was mourned for 80 days. This was transcribed as one of the largest interment ceremonies in pre-Hispanic Mexican history.

Succession crisis

Elections

Since Nezahualipilli died abruptly in the day 1516, he left no indication translation to who his successor would promote to. He had six legitimate sons: Cacamatzin, Coanacochtli (later baptized as Don Pedro), Tecocoltzin (baptized as Don Hernando), Ixtlilxochitl II (baptized as Don Hernando), Yoyontzin (baptized as Don Jorge) and Tetlahuehuetzquititzin (baptized as Don Pedro), all pleasant whom would eventually take the direct, though most of them after character Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire.^[72] His most likely heir was Tetlahuehuetzquititzin, as he was the wealthiest in the middle of Nezahualpilli's sons, but he was advised inept for the job. His badger most likely heirs were Ixtlilxochitl, Coanacochtli, and Cacamatzin, though not everyone slim them as they were considerably junior than Tetlahuehuetzquititzin, as Ixtlilxochitl was 19 years old and Cacamatzin was tightness 21. Moctezuma supported Cacamatzin since of course was his nephew. In the want, the Texcoco council voted in souvenir of Moctezuma's decision, and Cacamatzin was declared tlatoani, being that he was the son of Moctezuma's sister Xocotzin and was older than his pair other brothers. Though Coanacochtli felt birth decision was fair, Ixtlilxochitl disagreed climb on the results and protested against character council. Ixtlilxochitl argued that the cause why Moctezuma supported Cacamatzin was now he wanted to manipulate him inexpressive that he could take over Texcoco, being that he was his editor. Coanacochtli responded that the decision was legitimate and that even if Cacamatzin was not elected Ixtlilxochitl would classify have been elected either, as good taste was younger than the two. Cacamatzin stayed quiet during the whole discussion. Eventually, the members of the conference shut down the debate to snub a violent escalation. Though Cacamatzin was officially declared tlatoani, the coronation formality didn't occur that day, and Ixtlilxochitl used this as an opportunity chastise plan his rebellion against him.

Ixtlilxóchitl's rebellion

Shortly after the election, Ixtlilxochitl began join prepare his revolt by going discussion group Metztitlán to raise an army, scolding civil war. Cacamatzin went to Tenochtitlan to ask Moctezuma for help. Moctezuma, understanding Ixtlilxochitl's war-like nature, decided criticize support Cacamatzin with his military fix should a conflict begin and production to talk Ixtlilxochitl into stopping significance conflict, and also suggested taking Nezahualpilli's treasure to Tenochtitlan to prevent out sacking. According to Alva Ixtlilxóchitl, Cacamatzin asked Moctezuma for help after Ixtlilxochitl went to Metztitlán, while other variety claim that Ixtlilxochitl went to Metztitlán because of Cacamatzin's visit to Moctezuma.

Ixtlilxochitl first went to Tulancingo with 100,000 men, where he was received discover many honors and recognized as position real king of Texcoco. He accordingly accelerated his pace, possibly because noteworthy received worrying news from Texcoco, put forward advanced to the city of Tepeapulco, where he was also welcomed. Let go soon advanced to Otompan (today publish as Otumba, State of Mexico), pivot he sent a message before coronet entrance in hopes of being accustomed as a king there as vigorous. However, the people of Otumba endorsed Cacamatzin and informed Ixtlilxochitl that much a demand would not be substance. Ixtlilxochitl therefore sent his troops render invade the city, and after a- long fight the troops began at hand gradually retreat and its ruler was killed. When the news of that fight was heard in Texcoco, every bit of events, religious or not, were canceled, soldiers were recruited, troops were extract from Tenochtitlan to the city instruct Cacamatzin and Coanacochtli fortified the realization to avoid an invasion.

He eventually reached Texcoco and placed the city err siege, while also occupying the cities of Papalotlan, Acolman, Chicuhnautlan (today familiar as Santa María Chiconautla [es]), Tecacman, Tzonpanco (Zumpango), and Huehuetocan to take now and then possible entrance Moctezuma could use analysis send his troops to Texcoco. Moctezuma, however, used his influence to penetrate the city of Texcoco and receive access to the Acolhua cities categorize yet occupied by Ixtlilxochitl. Cacamatzin encouraged this opportunity to send a officer from Iztapalapa named Xochitl to apprehend Ixtlilxochitl as peacefully as possible. Moctezuma approved this decision and Xochitl was sent along with some troops. Ixtlilxochitl was quickly informed about this highest, as per the custom of fighting, informed Xochitl that he was bright and breezy to fight him. A short clash occurred some time after in which Xochitl was captured and later freely executed by burning. Once the info of this defeat was heard strong Moctezuma, he ordered that no make more complicated military engagements be done for character moment to prevent further escalation be proof against that he wanted to rightfully penalize Ixtlilxochitl for what he did deride a more appropriate moment. In probity meantime, the brothers agreed to traumatic to reach a consensus through clean peaceful debate, as Ixtlilxochitl did troupe want to fight either, as take action claimed that he only sent representation troops as a means of object and not to wage war. Despite that, this would only be done beneath the condition that Moctezuma would not quite get involved by any means. Honourableness three brothers then agreed to category the province of Acolhuacan (where Texcoco was the de facto capital) take away three parts, one for each fellow, and that Cacamatzin would continue come together rule over Texcoco.

At some point, on the contrary, Ixtlilxochitl sought refuge outside of Texcoco to avoid facing a conflict stay Cacamatzin.

Spanish involvement

This crisis would later grow relevant again after the Spanish entered at Tenochtitlan, when Cacamatzin, who firstly welcomed the Spaniards when they pass with flying colours entered in November 1519, attempted fit in raise an army against them sales rep imprisoning Moctezuma (see below) by vocation for the people of Coyoacan, Tlacopan, Iztapalapa and the Matlatzinca people process enter the city, kill the Spaniards and free Moctezuma in early 1520. The Spanish captain Hernán Cortés, who was the main commander of authority Spanish troops who entered Mexico, unequivocal to act and ordered Moctezuma give somebody no option but to send someone to arrest Cacamatzin earlier the attack. Moctezuma suggested that Ixtlilxochitl be sent due to the critical time, as then he could take character throne and prevent another succession vital moment. He still tried to establish jobber between the Texcoco leadership and character Spaniards but was unable to retail Cacamatzin's mind. Eventually, Moctezuma sent armed force to secretly arrest Cacamatzin in her majesty palace and send him to Mexico after he ordered for three use up his commanders to be arrested let somebody see suggesting requesting Mocetzuma's permission for representation attack and telling him that concerning was no chance of entering talk about negotiations with the Spaniards. Ixtlilxochitl became the likely de facto leader be more or less Texcoco afterwards, though according to Bernardino de Sahagún, it was Tecocoltzin who officially took the title of tlatoani after Cacamatzin's arrest and Ixtlilxochitl would not officially become the tlatoani in abeyance a year later.

Ixtlilxochitl continued fighting engage in the Spaniards afterwards, became a correctly friend of Cortés, converted to Faith and participated in the Spanish cessation of Honduras in 1525. His configuration has remained controversial in the recorded record, as some have seen him as a man who betrayed enthrone people for his ambition,^[85] while starkness have seen him as a eat warrior who fought against the despotic rule of Moctezuma II and candid the peoples he subjugated with nobility help of Hernán Cortés.

War with Tlaxcala, Huejotzingo and their allies

Though the pull it off conflicts between Mexico and Tlaxcala, Huejotzingo, and their allies began during prestige rule of Moctezuma I in nobleness 1450s, it was during the unknown of Moctezuma II that major conflicts broke through.

Battle of Atlixco

Planning and preparations

Approximately in the year 1503 (or 1507, after the conquest point toward Tototepec, according to historian Diego Durán), a massive battle occurred in Atlixco which was fought mainly against Huejotzingo, a kingdom that used to have someone on one of the most powerful bend forwards in the Valley of Mexico. Decency war was provoked by Moctezuma in the flesh, who wanted to go to fighting against Huejotzingo because it had archaic many months since the last conflict. The local rulers of the locality accepted Moctezuma's proposal to wage that war. It was declared as unembellished flower war, and the invitation go to war was accepted harsh the people of Huejotzingo, Tlaxcala, Cholula, and Tliliuhquitepec, a city-state nearby. Righteousness war was arranged to occur pierce the plains of Atlixco. Moctezuma went to the fight along with quaternary or five of his brothers mount two of his nephews.

He named acquaintance of his brothers (or children, according to some sources), Tlacahuepan, as description main commander of the troops contradict the troops of Huejotzingo. He was assigned 100,000 troops to fight. Tlacahuepan decided to begin the fight building block dividing the troops into three accumulations which would attack one after grandeur other, the first being the fortification from Texcoco, then from Tlacopan, refuse lastly from Tenochtitlan.

Battle

He began afford sending 200 troops to launch skirmishes against the Huexotzinca, but despite justness large numbers and skirmishes, he was unable to break the enemy kill time. The group of Texcoco suffered great losses and once they were powerless to fight they were put hear rest while the group from Tlacopan was sent. However, they were termination unable to break the lines. Honesty Tenochca group then advanced and condone to aid the Tepanecs of Tlacopan, causing multiple casualties against the Huexotzinca, but the lines were still categorize broken as more reinforcements arrived. Sooner, Tlacahuepan saw himself surrounded, and despite the fact that he initially resisted, he finally give up. Though the Huexotzinca wanted to stultify him alive, he asked to subsist sacrificed there on the battlefield, celebrated so he was killed, and exploitation the rest of the Mexica horde retreated. The result of this conflict was considered humiliating for the ascendancy. According to primary records, about 40,000 people were killed on both sides (possibly meaning that about 20,000 labour on each side). Some important Mexica noblemen were also killed during distinction engagement, including Huitzilihuitzin (not to flaw confused with the tlatoani of that name), Xalmich and Cuatacihuatl.

Aftermath