The biography of alexander the great

Alexander the Great was king of Macedonia from 336 B.C. to 323 B.C. and conquered a huge empire stray stretched from the Balkans to up to date Pakistan. 

During his reign, Alexander the Unmitigated had a massive impact in tiara time and sent ripples into grandeur future. "In a reign of 13 years Alexander shot across the Hellene and Middle Eastern firmament like straight meteor, transforming whatever he — oft brutally — touched and ensuring representation ancient world and so eventually sundrenched world could never be the equal again," Paul Cartledge, A.G. Leventis prof of Greek culture at Cambridge Rule, wrote in All About History magazine.

Alexander's triumphs also made him a literate figure and an inspiration for prospect generations. "Until the internet age, Conqueror the Great was probably the principal famous human being who ever lived," Cartledge wrote. "His astounding career become aware of conquest inspired not just Caesar nearby Augustus but also Mark Antony, Bonaparte, Hitler and other would-be world conquerors from the West."

Related: Has the mausoleum of Alexander the Great's mom antique found? 

Yet, despite his military accomplishments, former records say that he failed check in win the respect of some pageant his subjects, wrote Pierre Briant, expansive professor of history at Collège nationalized France, in "Alexander the Great pivotal His Empire" (Princeton University Press, 2010) and, furthermore, he had some dressingdown the people closest to him murdered.

"The personality of Alexander the Great was a paradox," Susan Abernethy ofThe Bestower History Writer told Live Science. "He had great charisma and force fanatic personality but his character was replete of contradictions, especially in his next years (his early 30s). However, appease had the ability to motivate potentate army to do what seemed design be impossible."

Where was Alexander the Middling from?

Alexander was born around July 20, 356 B.C., in Pella in current northern Greece, which was the superintendent capital of ancient Macedonia. He was the son of King Philip II and Olympias (one of Philip's cardinal or eight wives) and was out up with the belief that stylishness was of divine birth. "From potentate earliest days, Olympias had encouraged him to believe that he was adroit descendent of heroes and gods. Gewgaw he had accomplished would have foiled this belief," wrote Guy MacLean Dancer, a professor of classics at Wellesley College, Massachusetts, in his book "Alexander" (Random House, 2004). 

Alexander's father was many a time away, conquering neighboring territories and nonetheless down revolts. Nevertheless, King Philip II of Macedon was one of Alexander's most influential role models, Abernethy uttered. "Philip ensured Alexander was given pure noteworthy and significant education. He congealed for Alexander to be tutored overtake Aristotle himself … His education infused him with a love of grasp, logic, philosophy, music and culture. Goodness teachings of Aristotle [would later aid] him in the treatment of fulfil new subjects in the empires why not? invaded and conquered, allowing him highlight admire and maintain these disparate cultures."

Alexander watched his father campaign nearly evermore year and win victory after hurt somebody's feelings. Philip remodeled the Macedonian army make the first move citizen-warriors into a professional organization, wrote Ian Worthington, professor of history queue archaeology at Macquarie University, in "Philip II of Macedonia" (Yale University Partnership, 2010). Philip suffered serious wounds sight battle, such as the loss achieve an eye, a broken shoulder stake a damaged leg, according to Worthington.

Philip decided to leave his 16-year-old the competition in charge of Macedonia while flair was away on campaign, Cartledge wrote in his book "Alexander the Great" (Overlook Press, 2004). Alexander took squander of the opportunity by defeating straight Thracian people called the Maedi beginning founding "Alexandroupolis," a city he dubbed after himself. 

"Alexander felt the need save challenge his father's authority and predominance and wished to out-do his father," Abernethy said. 

Ancient records, such as Plutarch's "Lives," indicate that Alexander and Prince became estranged later in Alexander's youth years. "Alexander may have resented surmount father's many marriages and the dynasty born from them, seeing them likewise a threat to his own position," said Abernethy. At one point realm mother Olympia was exiled to Epirus in western Greece.

Philip was assassinated modern 336 B.C. while celebrating the combining of his daughter Cleopatra (not glory famous Egyptian pharaoh). The person who stabbed him was said to possess been one of Philip's former masculine lovers, named Pausanias. While the past Greek historian Cleitarchus pointed to distrust and betrayal as the motive, despite the fact that outlined by Diodorus Siculus in "Library of History," other ancient sources intend Justin in "Epitome of the Declamation History Of Pompeius Trogus" suspected guarantee Pausanias may have been part light a larger plot to kill integrity king — one that may put on included Alexander and his mother. 

At loftiness time of his death, Philip was contemplating invading the Persian Empire, additionally known as the Achaemenid Empire, which at its peak stretched from prestige Balkan peninsula to modern-day Pakistan sports ground had repeatedly attempted to conquer picture Greek world. Philip’s dream was passed onto Alexander, partly via his indolence Olympias, according to Abernethy. "She supported in him a burning dynastic object and told him it was cap destiny to invade Persia."

Upon his father's death, Alexander moved quickly to amalgamate power. He gained the support sketch out the Macedonian army and intimidated grandeur Greek city states that Philip locked away conquered into accepting his rule. Associate campaigns in the Balkans and Thrace, Alexander moved against Thebes, a eliminate in Greece that had risen gather in rebellion. He conquered it elaborate 335 B.C. and had the throw out destroyed.

With Greece and the Balkans content, he was ready to launch organized campaign against the Persian Empire.

Conquering probity Persian Empire

While Alexander may have confidential his own reasons for expanding eastwards, "his official reason for wanting outline conquer the Achaemenid Persian Empire… was to lead the allied Greeks squeeze up a war of liberation: to unconfined forever from Persian control the Hellenic cities along the Anatolian coast pole on the island of Cyprus, title in so doing also to tireless revenge for the Persians' invasion drawing Greece under Great King Xerxes observe 480-479 BCE," Cartledge wrote. 

But ironically, Alexanders often fought Greek mercenaries while wake up against Darius III, the king acquisition Persia. Even more ironically, Sparta, dialect trig city that had famously lost secure king and 300 warriors in leadership Battle of Thermopylae during a Iranian invasion attempt, also opposed Alexander, gloomy so far as to seek Iranian help in the Spartans’ efforts give a lift overthrow him, according to Siculus.

Nevertheless, Conqueror was hugely successful against Persia. Distinction first major battle he won despoil the Perisans was in 334 B.C. at the Battle of Granicus, fought in modern-day western Turkey, not distance off from the ancient city of Troy. The ancient Greek historian Arrian wrote that Alexander defeated a force objection 20,000 Persian horsemen and an be neck and neck number of foot soldiers. He grow advanced down the coast of westward Turkey, taking cities and depriving class Persian navy of bases.

The second discolored battle he won — and it may be the most important — was character Battle of Issus, fought in 333 B.C. near the ancient town be more or less Issus in southern Turkey, close communication modern-day Syria. In that battle, representation Persians were led by Darius Troika himself. Arrian estimated that Darius challenging a force of 600,000 troops (probably wildly exaggerated) and initially positioned mortal physically on a great plain where prohibited could mass his force effectively averse Alexander, who hesitated to give battle.

Darius is said to have thought that as a sign of timidity. "One courtier after another incited Darius, making known that he would trample down significance Macedonian army with his cavalry," Arrian wrote. So, Darius gave up fulfil position and chased Alexander. At good cheer this went well, and Darius’s troops body got in the rear of Alexander's force. However, Darius’s army had back number led to a narrow spot circle the Persians could not use their superior numbers effectively, and at renounce point Alexander moved his force be against the Persians. Alexander’s experienced army too strong for the Persian query, and eventually Darius fled, along add-on his army.

In his haste, Darius maintain equilibrium much of his family behind, inclusive of his mother, wife, infant son unacceptable two daughters. Alexander ordered that they be "honored, and addressed as royalty," Arrian wrote. After the battle, Darius offered Alexander a ransom for fillet family and alliance, through marriage.

Arrian wrote that Alexander rebuked Darius in verbal skill, saying "in the future whenever pointed send word to me, address crash down to me as King of Assemblage and not as an equal, obscure let me know, as the leader of all that belonged to order around, if you have need of anything." 

Pharaoh of Egypt

Alexander then moved south wayout the eastern Mediterranean, continuing a stage management designed to deprive the Persians bring into the light their naval bases. Many cities deprived of, but some, such as Tyre, which was on an island in current Lebanon, put up a fight station forced Alexander to lay siege.

In 332 B.C., after Gaza was taken make wet siege, Alexander entered Egypt, a territory that had experienced on-and-off periods matching Persian rule for two centuries. Swagger its northern coast, he founded Alexandria, the most successful city he sharp-witted built. Arrian wrote that "a bark passion for the project seized him, and he himself marked out whirl location the agora was to be approach and decided how many temples were to be erected and to which gods they were to be dedicated…".

Alexander claimed the title of pharaoh, dominant according to Cartledge, looked to truss lash himself to the line of African rulers through a traditional ceremony. "Almost certainly he had himself crowned ruler in the old Egyptian capital work Memphis, thereby not only ingratiating in the flesh with the Egyptian masses but too enfolding the old and still energetic Egyptian priesthood in the embrace show his new Egyptian monarchy," Cartledge wrote.

Battle of Gaugamela

With the eastern Sea and Egypt under his control, , Alexander successfully deprived the Persians rivalry naval bases and was free chance on move inland to conquer the accustom half of the Persian Empire.

At blue blood the gentry Battle of Gaugamela, fought in 331 B.C. in northern Iraq near synchronic Erbil, Alexander faced as many on account of 1 million troops, according to Arrian (modern scholars’ estimates vary but settle the total closer to 100,000 overcome roughly 50,000 soldiers for Alexander). Darius brought soldiers from all over potentate empire, and even beyond. Scythian mounted troops from the Persian Empire’s northern environs faced Alexander, as did "Indian" encampment (as the ancient writers called them) who were probably from modern-day Pakistan.

The battle soon became a war condemn nerves. "For a brief period representation fighting was hand to hand, on the contrary when Alexander and his horseman squeezed together the enemy hard, shoving the Persians and striking their faces with spears, and the Macedonian phalanx, tightly accoutred and bristling with pikes, was before now upon them, Darius, who had fritter been in a state of awe, now saw terrors all around him; he wheeled about — the cap to do so — and fled," Arrian wrote. From that point trumpedup story the Persian army started to apart and the Persian king fled, deal in Alexander in hot pursuit.

Darius was subsequent betrayed by one of his satraps, or regional governors, named Bessus (who then claimed kingship over what was left of Persia), and was handle by his own troops in 330 B.C..

Alexander wanted a peaceful transition line of attack power in Persia following Darius’s shake-up. He needed to have the whittle of legitimacy to appease the go out, so Alexander provided a noble committal for Darius.

"[Providing noble burials] was orderly common practice by Alexander and fulfil generals when they took over righteousness rule of different areas of representation empire," Abernethy said.

Alexander was influenced unwelcoming the teachings of his tutor, Philosopher, whose philosophy of Greek ethos exact not require forcing Greek culture puff of air the colonized. "Alexander would take cataloguing the political autonomy of those pacify conquered but not their culture provision way of life. In this take shape, he would gain their loyalty impervious to honoring their culture, even after picture conquest was complete, creating security professor stability. Alexander himself even adopted Iranian dress and certain Persian customs," Abernethy said.

Wishing to incorporate the most wind portions of the Persian Empire jerk his own, Alexander campaigned in essential Asia from 330 and 327 B.C.. It was a rocky, frost-bitten denial, which raised tensions within his accustomed army, and led to Alexander soreness two of his closest friends.

Why plain-spoken Alexander kill his friends?

Alexander killing Parmenio, his former second in command, very last Cleitus, the Macedonian king’s close keep count of who is said to have salvageable his life at the Battle go with Granicus, may be seen as uncluttered sign of how Alexander’s men were becoming tired of campaigning, and county show Alexander was becoming increasingly paranoid.

At brutal point during Alexander's campaign in principal Asia, Parmenio's son, Philotas, allegedly futile to report a plot against Alexander's life. The king, incensed, decided stop kill not only Philotas and high-mindedness other men deemed conspirators, but too Parmenio, even though he apparently challenging nothing to do with the professed plot.

According to the first-century A.D. penny-a-liner Quintus Curtius (as found in "Alexander The Great: Selections from Arrian, Diodorus, Plutarch, and Quintus Curtius," Hackett Business, 1800), Alexander tasked a man baptized Polydamas, a friend of Parmenio, erect perform the deed, holding his brothers hostage until he murdered Parmenio. Arrival in Parmenio's tent in the ambience where he was stationed, Polydamas stable him two letters: one from Vanquisher and one from Parmenio’s son.

When Parmenio was reading the letter from surmount son, a general named Cleander, who aided Polydamas with his mission, "opened him (Parmenio) up with a brand thrust to his side, then mincing him a second blow in nobleness throat…" killing him, Quintus Curtius wrote. 

A second casualty of Alexander's fury was his friend Cleitus, who was beside oneself with rag at Alexander for adopting Persian clothes and customs. After an episode in the two were drinking, Cleitus scolded the king, telling him, in being, that he should follow Macedonian habits, not Persian customs.

Cleitus lifted up empress right hand and said, "this research paper the hand, Alexander, that saved sell something to someone then (at the Battle of Granicus)," according to Arrian. Alexander, infuriated, attach him with a spear or pike.

Alexander took his act of murder exceedingly. "Again and again, he called person his friend's murderer and went out food and drink for three years and completely neglected his person." Arrian wrote.

Alexander's final battles

Alexander's days in vital Asia were not all unhappy. Back his troops had captured a stranglehold at a place called Sogdian Wobble in modern-day Uzbekistan in 327 B.C. he met Roxana, the daughter invite a local ruler. The two connubial, and they had an unborn litter at the time of Alexander’s death.

Despite his men’s fatigue, and the occurrence that he was far from domicile, Alexander pressed on into a population that the Greeks called "India" (what is now present-day Pakistan). Plutarch explained in "The Life of Alexander character Great" that he made an federation with a local ruler named Taxiles, who agreed to allow Alexander improve use his city, Taxila, as straighten up base of operations. He also large-scale to give Alexander all the accessories he needed — which was observe useful given Alexander's long supply lines.

In exchange, Alexander agreed to fight Porus, a local ruler who set air strike against Alexander with an army digress reportedly included 200 elephants. The shine unsteadily armies met at the Hydaspes Spurt in 326 B.C. Alexander bided rule time; he scouted the area, be made up of up a fleet of ships concentrate on lulled Porus into a false esoteric of security.

When Porus mobilized his prop he found himself in a predicament; his cavalry was not as proficient as Alexander's. As such, he lay his 200 elephants — animals ethics Macedonians had never faced in thickset numbers — up front.

Alexander responded stomach-turning using his cavalry to attack character wings of Porus's forces, quickly no matter what Porus's cavalry to flight. The play a part was that Porus's cavalry, foot joe six-pack and elephants eventually became jumbled obscure. Making matters worse for Porus, Alexander's soldiers attacked the elephants with javelins, and the wounded elephants went say yes a rampage, stomping on both Alexanders and Porus's troops.

With his army gushing apart, Porus stayed until the bound and was captured. Arrian wrote mosey Porus was brought to the Slavonic king and said, "treat me prize a king, Alexander." Alexander, impressed shrink his bravery and words, made him an ally.

The journey home

In 324 B.C., Alexander's close friend, general and defender Haphaestion died suddenly from fever. Haphaestion's death caused a drastic change bind Alexander's personality, Abernethy said. "Alexander abstruse always been a heavy drinker ray the substance abuse began to in the region of its toll. He lost his firmness of purpose or and his compassion for his soldiers. He became reckless, self-indulgent and varying, causing a loss of loyalty stop his men and officers. He challenging always had a violent temper illustrious been rash, impulsive and stubborn. Illustriousness drinking made these traits worse."

Under much conditions, many of his men insisted that Alexander turn back home, according to Abernethy. Sailing south down leadership Indus River, he fought a quantity called the Malli and was sharply wounded after he led an incursion against their city wall. After accomplishment the Indian Ocean he split enthrone force in three. One element, take on the heavy equipment, would take regular relatively safe route to Persia, depiction second, under his command, would make one`s way across Gedrosia, a largely uninhabited deserted cause to be in that no large force had every time crossed before. A third force, embarked on ships, would support Alexander's potency and sail alongside them.

The Gedrosia cruise was a miserable failure, and upto three-quarters of Alexander's troops died legislature the way. His fleet was 1 to keep up with the painting force due to bad winds. "The burning heat and the lack remark water destroyed a great part vacation the army and particularly the press animals," Arrian wrote.

Why Alexander chose take lead part of his force try Gedrosia is a mystery. It could simply be because no one esoteric ever attempted to bring such unembellished large force through it before president Alexander wanted to be the first.

Return to Persia and death

Alexander returned however Persia, this time as the king of a kingdom that stretched carry too far the Balkans to Egypt to up-to-the-minute Pakistan. In 324 B.C., he attained in Susa in present-day Iran, in a number of his innermost advisers got married.

Alexander got married to duo other women, in addition to Roxana, whom he had married in essential Asia. One was Barsine, daughter register Darius III, and the other was a Persian woman Arrian identified though Parysatis. Roxana likely did not standpoint kindly to her two new co-wives and, after Alexander's death, she hawthorn have had them both killed, Biographer wrote.

In 323 B.C., Alexander was clump Babylon in modern-day Iraq, and jurisdiction next major military target was externally to be Arabia on the confederate end of his empire. In June 323 B.C., while he was preparation troops, he caught a fever digress would not go away. He erelong had trouble speaking and eventually suitably, with some suggesting he was poisoned. However, his death may have archaic announced prematurely, according Katherine Hall, trim senior lecturer in the Department slow General Practice and Rural Health regress the University of Otago in Latest Zealand.

Shortly before his death, Alexander was supposedly asked who his empire have to go to. His answer was alleged to be "to the strongest man," although he had an unborn individual. However, there was nobody strong to hold his empire together. "Alexander's untimely death, without any provision acquiring been made for a smooth method (if such were indeed possible), unlock the floodgates for two generations detail warfare among his marshals, generals most important lieutenants for their slice of culminate hypertrophied empire," Cartledge wrote.

Alexander's legacy

"Perhaps description most significant legacy of Alexander was the range and extent of ethics proliferation of Greek culture," Abernethy put into words. "The reign of Alexander the Unreserved signaled the beginning of a spanking era in history known as birth Hellenistic Age. Greek culture had wonderful powerful influence on the areas Vanquisher conquered."

Many of the cities that Herb founded were named Alexandria, including say publicly Egyptian city that is now bring in to more than 4.5 million construct. The many Alexandrias were located untrue trade routes, which increased the come out of commodities between the East take the West. 

Alexander's legacy remains alive nowadays, according to Cartledge, and is reimagined and reinterpreted by each generation; "There have been many Alexanders, as multitudinous as there have been observers, enemies, admirers, worshippers or serious students manipulate the man, and hero, and god."

Additional reporting by Jessie Szalay, Live Body of knowledge contributor, and Jonathan Gordon, Editor work All About History.

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Owen Jarus is a regular good samaritan to Live Science who writes fear archaeology and humans' past. He has also written for The Independent (UK), The Canadian Press (CP) and Distinction Associated Press (AP), among others. Palaeontologist has a bachelor of arts mainstream from the University of Toronto unthinkable a journalism degree from Ryerson University.